Chinese Merchants and Chinese Settlements in Medieval Japan
By Region, and "Toubou" Settlement
Place name Toubou/Starting with Imatoubou
"Interaction and Transformations"Kyushu Univarsity,2 ,2005
Hideo Hattori
List of area names
1. Toubou (Overseas Chinese) settlements mentioned in reference materials (唐
房, 唐坊/Sung Settlements
(Hakata-Tsu･Munakata･Torikai･Hirado(
2. Torikai in the Middle Ages
(Reconstruction of the topographical features of locations identified as
Toubou ( Part1)(
3. Mei-no-hama / Inatoubou and Shimo-Yamato/Imatoubou
(Reconstruction of topographical features of locations identified as Toubou
(Part 2)(
4. Sung settlements and Toubou reconstructed from reference material/location
names
("Chinese Settlements" and "New, Small Chinese Towns"
Chinese Merchants and Chinese Settlements in Meadieval Japan
----Starting with Place name Toubou and Imatoubou------
"Interaction and Transformations"Kyushu Univarsity,2 ,2005
Foreword
Toubou locations and location names coming from formerly existing Toubou
tend to be distributed along the Saikai coastal areas of Japan, i.e., the coasts of
western Kyushu. Many different kanji (Chinese) characters are used to write the
names of these settlement locations such as "当房," etc. However, the most
historically correct kanji characters are "唐房" and "唐坊."
It is believed that the characters "唐房" (唐坊) were used to denote Chinese
settlements in Japan. For example, the character "房" means "house" or
"building" and the character "坊" has such historical meanings as "room",
"village" and "city area". In the case of Ryukyu Kume Village (=琉球久米村),
the local Chinese settlement was referred by the term "Touei" (Lit. "Chinese
encampment"). The character "ei" also has the meanings of "fort" and
"residence." Later, the characters used for the term "touei" in this case were
changed to "唐栄" (Lit. Chinese Prosperity"). The term "Toukan" (唐館) was
used for the Chinese trading and residence facility in Nagasaki that was also
referred to by the term "Toujin-yashiki" (Lit. "Chinese Residence"). During the
same period, there was a special settlement for Arabs in the Canton (Koshu) area
of Southern China that was referred by the term "Banbou ("蕃坊") that translates
literally as the "Barbarian House."
In the early part of the Middle Ages in Japan, the distribution of location names
originating as names connected with Chinese trading settlements, "Toubou," in
Japan were as shown in the accompanying map. At the current time, there are 12
recognized locations. However, it is not entirely clear whether all of these names
actually came from previously historically existing Toubou in these locations or
not. This is a matter that requires verification by future research. These names all
appear in coastal areas. None appear in the central plain area or in the mountain
areas. In previous days, the western Kyushu coastal areas were simply the areas
of Japan that were geographically closest to Chinese mainland. There is a
relatively high probability that locations with the name of "Toubou" were in fact
overseas Chinese trading settlements. In addition, In the case of Kuchi-no-tsu
machi in Nagasaki Prefecture, there was a "東方" ("Toubou" from the character
"higashi" for "east and "bou") and also nearby, a "Chinese town" (唐人町:
"Toujin-machi"), leading to the conclusion that the two probably were closely
related.
In the discussion that follows below, using the location name of "Toubou," the
activities of the overseas Chinese traders in Japan in the latter part of earliest era
of Japanese history up to and including the Middle Ages will be examined along
with the relationships of Japan with East Asia over this period.
List of place names
Northern Kyushu and Western Kyushu Toubou-related place names
Tsuyasaki Toubou located in Munakata (Fukuoka Pref.)
Mei-no-hama/Ina-atari and Shimo-Yamato located in Fukuoka City
"Toubou:" A place name in Sashi in Kusatsu City in Saga Pref.
Toubou: Located at Yagami in Nagasaki City (東望= Toubou)
(Located near Toujin-machi)
Toubou: Located at Kuchi-no-tsu Town in Nagasaki Pref.
Toubou Osaki, Matsuura City (東防)
Southern Kyushu Toubou-related place names
Godai-cho, Sendai City, Kagoshima Pref. (当房)
Toubou-hira (当房) Tarumizu City, Kagoshima Pref.
Ko-minato Toubou, Kaseda City, Beppu, Oita Pref. (当房)
Toubou-en, Masuyama, Kaseda City, Kagoshima Pref. (当房薗)
Toubou: Nukumi, Kiire City, Kagoshima Pref. (東房)
1. Toubou (Chinese) settlements mentioned in reference materials (唐房, 唐坊)(Sung Settlements
(Hakata-Tsu(Munakata(Torikai(Hirado(
The term "Toubou" can be found in historical reference materials and also
can be found in place names that still exist. First, the mentions in historical
material will be examined.
A. Hakata-tsu
The term "Toubou" (唐房) first occurs in surviving historical documents
during the Heian Period. The mentions that are the most widely known
are:
"Hakata-tsu Toubou", mentioned in a document from the 4th year of
Eikyuu Era (1116) (Konoe-no-kuni, Saikyo-ji Sutra, in the postscript)
Saikyo-ji Archives, "両巻疏知礼記" (Postscript of Vol. 1) (Similar
material is also found in the Vol. 2 postscript)
永久四年歳次丙午五月十一日、筑前国簿（博）多津唐房大山船_三
郎船頭房、以有智山明光房唐本移書畢、已上
The person named Saburo is said to have a very good knowledge of both
Japan and China This type of phrasing Kyo_ is almost never used in
Japan. However, it is common for these characters to be used for names.
Thus, judging from this, the man that is living in the Toubou (唐房) is
Chinese (Sung Dynasty) The term "Daisen" refers to a temple called
Daisen-ji located at the foot of the mountain known as Houmanzan
situated close to Dazaifu, the Kyoto central government's military
garrison and headquarters in northern Kyushu (Ritsuryo period). (This
temple was also known as "Uchiyama-dera"). _三郎Kyo Saburo lived in Hakata and also seemingly had a close relationship with Dazaifu.
Daisen-ji (Uchiyama-dera) that was under the strong influence of the
famous Kyoto area temple atop Hiezan (=延暦寺= Enryaku-ji). At the
current time, Saikyo-ji is located at the foot of Hiezan in Sakamoto where
it actually originated. Regarding the postscript, the contents contained the
following lines: "In the 2nd year of the Shoou Era (1289), in the Daisen
West Pagoda area ( the North ridge) Kaobou, these books from the
Eastern Temple were copied in the Nishiya Houzou Bou (Valuable
document repository). (Hiezan = Daisen = Tendai-san). Judging from
these lines, persons connected with Enryaku-ji brought some sutras from
somewhere in the Hakata area and they were taken to a temple at Hiezan
and copied there.
B. Munakata (Toubou)The term, "Munakata Toubou" appears in the "Kyokun-sho" (=教訓抄=
Collection of Moral Lessons). This book is a collection of essays by the
famous master of the biwa (a Japanese lute) who died in the 2nd year of
the Eichou Era (1097) and the famous commander of Dazaifu, Minamoto
Tsunenobu. "Munakata" was also known as "Hanakata". The theory is
that the two different ways of pronouncing the name developed over time
since the pronunciations of the first syllable sounds were similar.
In Chikuzen Tsuyasaki/Araji (Fukuoka Pref.) there is an area with
Toubou-related place names and nearby there are the Araji/Nishi-no-go
ruins from which large quantities of Chinese pottery have been excavated.
A character that appears to be "綱" (= ropes. See discussion below) is
written in black on some of this pottery. Currently, the southern building
in the Tsuyasaki Primary School grounds has been converted to a museum
for the relics of the Araji/Munakata Toubou (唐防) and this site has
become an important example of the identified Toubou sites.
In the Heian Period, Toubou located both in Hakata and in Munakata
appear in documents from the period and the words "唐房" and "唐防"
can be seen.
In addition, recently, through the efforts of S. Enomoto, in addition to
the two items mentioned above, it has been reported that the writings of
Yousai include mentions of the Hakata-tsu Toubou appear.
C. Hakozaki
As can be seen from the above, during both the period before the Middle
Ages and during Japan's Middle Ages, in the northern part of Kyushu it is
clear that there were Chinese and, specifically Sung Chinese, that lived in
settlements in Japan. Evidence of this fact appears in historical references
of the period from the end of the 11th century to the beginning of the 12th
century. These "Toubou" settlements changed from one period to the
next.
In the Ming Dynasty period document, "Bubishi," (=武備志, written in
the first year of the Chinese Tenkei Era (1621), the area names "Hakata-
tsu" (Written as花旭塔津 in Chinese) and "Hakozaki" (法哥殺機) can
be seen and it is evident that there is a "Daitou-machi (Great China
Town),
but, the text says, "the inhabitants have already taken on Japanese ways."
花旭塔津為中津､地方広闊人煙湊集中国海商無不聚此地有松林方長
十里･名十里有百里松土名法哥殺機､乃廂先也､有一街名大唐街唐人
留彼､相伝今尽為倭也
Hakata-tsu (Tsu = port or harbor) is in the very center. It is broad and the
houses are crowded together. Chugoku (Chukan no kuni = "the "middle
country?" city and because the business is being done by using the sea,
they have gathered here in this place. It is said that there is a pine forest
that continues for ten "ri", or is it 100 "ri" ("ri" = 3.9 km). This place is
called "Hakozaki". It is like an extension of Hakata-tsu. It is said that this
town is called "Daitougai" (Great Chinese Town). Toujin (Chinese/Tang
were there, but with the passing of the years, they take on the ways of the
Wa:Wei (=倭= Japanese).
Above, it was confirmed that in both Hakata and in Munakata, there were
Chinese settlements (Sung settlements and Toubou. From the writings in
the "Bubishi," it was possible to read that in Hakozaki there were Toubou.
More than 300 years ago, Kaibara Ekiken (=貝原益軒, 1630 - 1714)
reached this conclusion in his "The Culture and History of Chikuzen (筑
前国続風土記, 1703).During the Sengoku Era, a new channel up the
Ishidogawa was dug. Up
until that time, Hakata and Hakozaki were connected by land. Hakozaki
was under the eaves of Hakata. In the 1st year of Ninpyo (1151), in
historical documents, there are references related to the famous case of
the arrest of the widow of a Sung Chinese named Wang sheng (王昇) and
in the 2nd year of the Bunji Era (1186) and also in a book from the
Kamakura Era, "鎌倉遺文, 1157 = Historical Records of Kamakura),
there is a sentence that says there "was an attack was made on Hakozaki
and Hakata". In recent years, due to the advances made in archeological
research, it has been possible to retrieve from excavation carried out in
Hakozaki rounded eave tiles with flower designs and wave-pattern tiles.
The eave tiles include tiles with a flower motif that looks like a peony and
also eave tiles with pronounced wave patterns. Neither of these patterns
exists in the case of Japanese tiles. However, tiles with these patterns are
in common use in the Liaoning area of China. There have similar tiles
unearthed in excavations in Hakata. Either the tiles themselves were
imported from China or the molds were imported and these tiles were
made in Japan. The amount of these tiles that has been found is small so
that they may have been imported and used just for symbolic uses. Islands
of Chinese culture and society, Toubou, existed simultaneously in both
Hakata and in Hakozaki. In addition, blue porcelain from these
excavations coming from the kilns of Koshu in China has also been
recovered. There was a "Daitougai" in both Hakata and also in Hakozaki
that seems to have been connected in some way.
D. Torikai
In addition to Munakata, Hakata and Hakozaki, there are mentions of
others in historical documents in places where it is easy to imagine that
they would have existed. One such location is Torikai.
In the Iwashimizu document that include Hachiman-gu Hakozaki Shrine
lumber-making records (Hakozaki-gu Historical Archives), there is a
section that lists the parties that were responsible for organizing the
contributors to bear the expense for repairing the fence around the
Hakozaki Shrine.
「彼領主二人内 一人博多鋼首張興・御分通事
一人同鋼首張英・号鳥飼二郎船頭」
"There are two landowners. One is Zhang xing (張興), a Hakata kohshu
(=綱首= kohshu = Master of the ropes = captain) and also a scribe(=御分
通事= writer of documents in Chinese).
One is Zhang yin (張英) and other is Torikai Saburo, a ship's captain.
Two parties are listed: One has the title of the "Master of the ropes" of
Hakata. (Lit. "=博多綱首= a Hakata captain) who is called "Torikai
Saburo." The other also has the title of "Master of the ropes" (In previous
historical studies of Hakata, "Zhang yin (張英)" (A Chinese?) was simply
seen as one of the principle landowners of Torikai. His name appears in
the records as part of the name of parcels of housing land. It appears more
accurate to perceive him as residing in Torikai and using it for his base of
operations. The place name "Hakata" at the present time no longer refers
to the area east of the Naka River, but at that time it referred to a very wide area of the coastline, a fact that has been pointed out by Nakayama
Heijiro ("古代の博多"= Hakata in Ancient Times) (1984).
E. Hirado
The expression "唐房" is not used elsewhere. However, in the Aokata
historical records dating from the 2nd year of the Antei Era, (1228), in a
document dated the 2nd year of the Ninpyo Era (1152), there is the name
of a boat master called Hirado Sosendo (=平戸蘇船頭) who is described
as the son of a Sung Chinese. This would appear to indicate that there
were Chinese traders in Hirado around this period (Overseas Chinese =華
僑= Kakyo).
2. Torikai in the Middle Ages
(Reconstruction of the topographical features of locations identified as
Toubou ( Part1)(
In the case of historical studies in the past, there is no indication that it was
surmised that there were Sung Chinese living in the Torikai town area.
However, this appears to be a result of modern perceptions concerning
topology of such areas. By recreating the topology of the Middle Ages, the
reason that there most likely were Sung Chinese living in the Torikai area
becomes clear.
When one hears the name "Torikai," one is bound to recall such events as
Mongol attack on Japan in the 11th year of the Bunei Era portrayed in "竹崎
季長絵詞" in which such participants as "Torikai no Shio-hikata (鳥飼潮干
潟= Torikai of the tidal flats) and Torikai no Shio-ya no Matsu (=鳥飼の塩
屋の松= Matsu of the Torikai salt makers) appear. And, also there is the
famous line, "They chased them through the tidal flats on horses, but could
not get revenge. Kichou, raced after the Mongol soldiers, but the horse's legs
got caught in soft tidal flats (It was low tide) and his horse was unable to run
at top speed". A term referring to the floundering of horse running in
difficult situations (馬のあしたち= uma no ashitachi) also appears
frequently in the Heike Monogatari. However, the situation described above
would appear to make it problematic as to whether the horse could stand at
all in the soft shallows. The use of this term is probably a good indication of
the nature of the Torikai salt flats. These tidal flats stretched along the coast
between Torikai and Akasaka.
Thus, it can be seen that there were major tidal flats area near Torikai. This
area has been given the name of the Okeigawa/Torikai Tidal Lagoon. On the
day of the Bunei Battle, according to the lunar calendar, the moon was in the
19th day of the lunar cycle (The date was October 20th) and during the
morning the tide was at mid-height. Low tide occurred at 6:00 in the
morning. High tide was at noon. During the time that the battle was going
on,
the tide began to rise in the tidal flats. The made it increasingly difficult for
the horses.
At the present time, in O-hori Park, there is a large pond. This pond is what
remains from the tidal lagoon formed by the Okeigawa and the Torikai Tidal
Flats in the Middle Ages. As shown in the "Hakata Pictures" drawn during
the Shoho Era (1644-48), on the left bank of the Okeigawa, there is a "salt-
burning shore." This is the salt-making area of the tidal lagoon at Torikai
shown in hand-drawn pictures around the beginning of the Modern Period.
The Torikai tidal lagoon was situated to the west of Akasaka. It played a
major role in the history of the area. The Korokan (=鴻臚館) was designed,
of course, with the ships that came into the tidal lagoon in mind.
The situation then was different from the situation now. Formerly, the
Okeigawa passed through the currently existing O-hori (= Great Moat) and
then flowed into Hakata Bay. This scene is clearly depicted in the Keichou
Era (1596 - 1615) ("国絵図"= Drawings of Different Countries = Regions).
In order to dry up the tidal lagoon and tidal flats area to convert the area into
usable land, the course of the Okeigawa was changed. If the scene were to be
recreated using a modern map (50 centimeter contour lines), the present
Okeigawa would be flowing into sand dunes ranging from one meter to six
meters in height. (Hattori: "Reading The Meaning of History"). It is clearly a
man-made river. The part of the river near the mouth of the present
Okeigawa near the Torikai sand dunes is known as the "Imagawa" which is
spanned by the Imagawa Bridge. In the historical reference "筑前国続風土
記拾遺," in the section devoted to Torikai Village in the Soura district, there
is a line that says, "This area is called 'Imagawa' nowadays." The name itself
describes the situation well (Imagawa = new river). The Imagawa was dug to
increase the outflow water capacity of the Okeigawa. Following this, the
Kuromongawa and the Komogawa were dug, in succession, through the sand
dunes. The course of the Komogawa flows through the lowest area
surrounding the moat and serves to prevent rainwater from flowing into the
moat.
Before this project was carried out and the Tidal Lagoon had not been
converted to land, the Torikai Tidal Lagoon was affected by the draining and
filling of the tidal flats. Even now, the Imatsu/western Hakata tidal flats that
still survive have a very close resemblance to the previous Torikai tidal flats
in topological configuration. In the case of Hakata-tsu as well, before the
alteration related to the Okasagawa and before the conversion into dry land
began to progress, there was a body of water known as Nakagawa Lagoon
also having similar features. Concerning Mei-no-hama, which will be
discussed separately below (It is also known as Nagaragawa名柄川Lagoon,
or as Muromigawa室見川 Lagoon). In Hakozaki as well there was a lagoon
(Tataragawa多々良川 Lagoon) of the same type. All of these bodies of
water helped the development of the Hakata area as a port for landing
cargoes.
3. Mei-no-hama/ Ina-Atari and Shimo-Yamato/Imatoubou
(Reconstruction of topographical features of locations identified as Toubou
(Part 2)(
The area around Hakata is an area where large quantities of porcelain articles,
including Yue zhou (越州) gama cooking furnaces imported from China are
found and not likely to be found in the small villages of the area. These areas
include the delta of the Tataragawa (Hakozaki-tsu), from Mei-no-hama to
Shimo-Yamato and the surrounding area.
In the Hakata Nishi-ku area in Mei-no-hama, there is a place name, "Toubou"
(=當方), where it appears a Toubou, or Chinese settlement, was located. The
first scholarly report concerning the existence of the Mei-no-hama 當方
(Toubou) was written by T. Yanagihara (中世前期南九州の港と宋人居留
地に関する一試論= A Report on Sung Settlements in Southern Kyushu in
The Middle Ages) included in Japanese History Studies, V. 448, (1998). In
the case of this study, the area to the southwest of Mei-no-Hama, the name of
the Shimo-Yamato settlement, Imatoubou (=今東方), has become known.
The "Ima" (= now) in the name probably was used to mean "new." Thus, the
name of this settlement was "New Chinese Settlement/Town."
Shimo-Yamato is a station name on the JR Chikuhi Line. In the past this was
a coal mining area and many mines were located here. Around 1960, the land
surface began to subside so that cultivation in the area was curtailed. At the
present time, the area is becoming filled with suburban towns and crowded
with houses. Interviews were carried with a number of elderly residents of
the area. The name "Imatoubou" was vaguely remembered as the name of a
place in the area, but no respondent could remember clearly where it was
located. There were opinions that it was in the eastern part of the area and in
a section of fields. When they were asked about where "Imatoubou" was,
there were several respondents that asked the meaning of "Toubou," but
many seemed to know the word.
In the Mei-no-Hama area, it was discovered that there was an 稲當方, (=
"Inatoubou"). This raised the question as to whether Imatoubou in Shimo-
Yamato was not actually the same place. When it is compared to the Mei-
no-hama "當方" (Toubou), the location is relatively far inland and it is not
located close to a river. Thus, there was a chance that this "Toubou" (東方)
might really refer to an actual Chinese settlement. However, by going to the
local office of the Ministry of Legal Affairs and checking one by one the
records showing the old names for the area, and copying the important
portions, it was possible to determine the actual location to which the name
applied.
The results confirmed that the "今東方" located in Shimo-Yamato and
Inatoubou (=稲當方) located in Mei-no-hama were right next to each other.
Both were part of the local town area, but were separated by rice fields. In
the case of the Shimo-Yamato 今東方, immediately to the west, there was a
cargo warehouse and further to the west is a location called Furukawa (= Old
River). In other words, in olden days, there was a river nearby. Thus, we
have a river, a cargo warehouse and a Chinese settlement.
Near to Mei-no-hama, the Jurogawa (十郎川) cuts through the dunes and it is
clear that this river is man-made. Originally, this river probably joined the
Nagaragawa (名柄川) and flowed into the sea at Mei-no-hama.
The historical ruins related to Shimo-Yamato, Jurogawa and Shikita (=敷田)
are currently being excavated. At all of them, evidence of the early coastline
and swampy areas has been found. In addition, large quantities of porcelain
utensils imported from China along with many Yue zhou (越州) gama
cooking furnaces According to the report, the number of Yue zhou (越州)
gama that were found at the Shimo-Yamato excavation are surpassed only by
those found at the Korokan excavations (=鴻臚館). Currently, the number of
research examples has increased so that the original amount is not as large as
it appeared, by comparison, but S. Yamazaki from the Fukuoka City Board
of Education who was involved in the excavations said he found it hard to
believe such a large quantity of Yue zhou (越州) gama cooking furnaces
would be unearthed there. This happened probably because behind the dunes
lay broad tidal flats. From the mouth of the Nagaragawa river, boats bringing
cargos from larger ships entered the tidal lagoon and as a result, a Chinese
settlement called Imatoubou grew up. It is natural to assume that there was
also a harbor (= tsu =津) nearby.
The location name, "Old River", was also found in connection with Shimo-
Yamato. It is possible to hypothesize that this river was actually the
Jurogawa.
The upper reaches of this river in the Ishimaru Village area are called
Higashi-Furukawa (East-Old River). Thus, the Jurogawa was perceived as
the "Furukawa." In addition, there is a location in Mei-no-hama that is called
"Furukawa." The upper reaches of the Nagaragawa are close to the border of
Shimo-Yamato. Therefore, not only the Jurogawa, but also in the case of the
Nagaragawa, a portion of this river was also referred to as "Furukawa." The
question is what was the route of the "Shinkawa" (= New River).
At the mouth of the Muromigawa (室見川) also, it is maintained that there
was a large tidal flats area. In the drainage area of the Kanakuzugawa (金屑
川) there is a bridge called 新開 (= Shinkai = newly opened) and another
place name called 船底 (= Funazoko = boat bottom = shallows), etc. Given
the topographical features of the river, it appears that the local inhabitants of
the area have altered the path of the flow of the river several times over the
years. According to a Meiji Era contour map of the area, to keep the left
bank
of lower reaches of the Muromigawa from shifting to the west, a three-layer
levee was constructed in one area. This seems to indicate that there may have
been shifting to the west in the past caused by rampant water during an era in
the past. It is probably true that a large tidal flats area existed.
4. Sung settlements and Toubou reconstructed from reference material/location
names
("Chinese Settlements" and "New, Small Chinese Towns"(
Sand dunes tend to develop in Hakata Bay. Large and small rivers converged
in the bay and broke through the lower parts of the dunes and flowed into the
ocean. Behind the dunes, swampy areas and tidal lagoons were generated.
There were many areas with similar topographical features and most of these
areas include natural harbors. Sung Chinese had bases of operation in almost
every one of these harbors. These Sung bases of operation included Imatsu,
Mei-no-hama, Torikai, Hakata, Hakozaki and others. The types of operations
that can be verified from the existing historical document sources coincide
with the locations that bear Toubou-related names. They also coincide with
the areas where large quantities of Chinese earthenware and porcelain utensils
have been unearthed.
The "綱" in"綱首" (= koushu) is the character for "tsuna" (= rope + shu =
master of the ropes = captain ) and is related to "transportation; as stated
above, "綱首" means "captain" and probably indicates a trading operation.
The historical figure that appears in the "今昔物語" and the "宇治拾遺物
語," the Hakozaki official, Sadashige, as a small gift to the most powerful
man in Kyoto, Fujiwara Yorimichi (Head of the famous Sekkan family) lent
him "600 or 700 Chikushi Chinese". This was worth 60 to 70 "kan" in the
currency of the day and is probably worth about _10 million today. There
were, in these times, Chinese with massive wealth. In the case of raw silk,
raw silk that could be purchased for a value of "1" in China could be sold in
Japan for "100" (According to T. Toyota). It was likely that each ship
carrying raw silk was carrying a maximum cargo of this commodity every
voyage and each captain had a key part in a business that earned hundreds of
million of yen.
The Sung Chinese organization of kohshu captains was not totally integrated
and there was strong competition between the different trading companies
and probably rivalry between the captains. In the case of Hakata/Munakata,
Chou and his affiliates tended to dominate the business. Groups close to Chou
included the 丁 (Found in Liaoning, #1 stone monument inscription) and
the Wang (王) (Munakata Taisha shrine archive records). However, there
were other personages also involved such as the Zhuang (荘), Yang (楊), Su
(蘇), Xie (謝), Li (李), Chen (陳), Feng (憑), and the Zhou (周), (S.
Enomoto, "A Re-examination of 'Japanese Merchants of The Sung Era",
History Magazine(史学雑誌), V110-2, F. Hayashi "Hakata Kohshu: Related
References," "Fukuoka City Museum Research Bulletin" 4- 1994). In
addition, there have been unglazed earthenware utensils unearthed bearing
the following characters in black: ｢Ding gang (丁綱)｣｢Wang gang (王綱)｣
｢Chen gang (陳綱)｣｢Xun gang (孫綱)｣ and many others. (Y. Oba,
"Collected Reference Materials: Hakata Area Excavation Earthenware",
Hakata Research Association Magazine, (= 博多研究会誌), Special Issue,
#1999 (11/2003). Thus, it is difficult to conclude that one single group
dominated the trading activity. The Chou group gradually split into several
different sub-groups.
As can be seen from the above, the Hakata Koushu "Zhang xing" (=張興)
was also a Hakozaki-gu (= 箱崎宮) "Gobuntsuji" (=御分通事). In the
historical reference, "Bunmei Honsetsu Youshu (=文明本節用集), there are
the following words: "御分...ｺﾞﾌﾞﾝ...下人" (Gobun...genin =
secretary...assistant). He was an interpreter for Hakozaki-gu. He was also
referred to as "Hakata koushu," but his base of operations was Hakozaki.
Choei of Torikai and the Hakozaki interpreter, Choei, each worked in a
different harbor area,
Choukyou was also close to Hakozaki-gu and to the Usa (=宇佐) and
Hachiman (八幡) groups. However, in addition, a women from the Wang
(王) and another from the Zhang (張) had married into family of the chief
priest of the Munakata Shrine. This made it possible to penetrate the temples
and shrines in the area and the power elite as well. This was done both to
obtain great wealth and also to protect it.
The Hakata-tsu Toubou, as shown by the postscript written in the sutras
belonging to Saikyo-ji was under the jurisdiction of Daisen-ji in Dazaifu
(Also known as Uchiyamadera有智山寺). Judging from Tendai network in
the area that included Usa, Hikoyama, Daisen-ji and Hakozaki, it is likely
that the Hakozaki-gu/Jingu-ji (=箱崎宮神宮寺) was a central base of
operations. In the last year of the Outoku Era (Circa 1086), a priest from
Uchiyamadera who moved to Hakozaki became friendly with the two of
them (Refer to "本朝高僧伝"). In the "中右記," the entry for October 30,
1105 (the 2nd year of the Chouji Era) refers to battle going on between
Enryaku-ji and Iwashimizu Hachiman-gu concerning who will be nominated
as the assistant to Daisen-ji (As "bettou", an outside temple official with
political connections). The Hachiman-gu side had close connections with
the Hakozaki Hachiman-gu "Gobun", Choukyou. There also was another
"jinin" (=神人, shrine cleric, etc.) also spoken of as a staff interpreter and as
a "sentoh" (=船頭= boat caption) called Chou Kohan that was also possibly
involved. Hakozaki-gu/Jingu-ji and Munakata Daisha (Tsuyasaki Toubou)
can probably not be said to have been always acting together in such matters.
The matter may have involved a dispute the gift of an estate (Note: A well-
known practice of the period of a noble "giving" a country estate over to a
shrine or temple to avoid taxes). The two Chinese women Wang (王) and
Zhang (張) married into the Munakata Daisha family, but may not have
developed a very close connection with the Hakozaki side.
Concerning the power elite that may have been involved, it is possible to
assume the party involved was a retired Emperor, the Sekkan family,
Dazaifu,
the Bakufu, etc. The Hakata Koushu and Todaiji and, on the Sung side
temples and shrines such as 育王山 and 天童山, are known to have had
close connections. (Refer to橋本論考). There were several different Toubou
in the Hakata Bay area and several of them would be cooperating or fighting
with each other. (The Choei and Choukyou operations are an example of
this).
Hakozaki-gu had direct connections with the Imperial Court. At the time of
Bunei Era Incident (=役= military action) when the shrine was burned to the
ground, the Imperial Court stood aside (=廃朝= cases where the Emperor for
whatever reason removes himself from political matters). This shrine was
under the direct control of the central Kyoto government. In the case of
Hakozaki, the land records include the notation "Sung Chinese rice tax-free
land" (=宋人皆免田= land provided rice tax-free to certain persons in
payment for other services rendered or land for which taxes are paid in kind,
in this case, silk ). The amount to be paid was 20丁. Thus, the yearly tax was
paid with a large amount of Chinese silk. There was a Sung settlement
neighborhood in Hakozaki large "China Town." (=大唐街). Hakozaki was
clearly under the direct control of central government in Kyoto. The harbor
of Hakozaki-tsu was also one of the harbors under direct control of the
central government. The Hakata Kushida Shrine did not have the features
that made it a target for direct government control. What the various Kyoto
power elite families controlled was the harbor of Hakata-tsu that was under
the control of non-government parties and it was this harbor that enjoyed the
most prosperity.
From around the end of the Heian Period and into the Kamakura Period,
there were several incidents where the Sung Koushu were assassinated and
attacked. In the 1st year of the Ninpyo Era (1151), The widow of the Sung
Chinese by the name of Wang sheng hou (王昇後) who was living in
Hakozaki in Hakata was attacked. In the 6th year of the Kenpo Era (1218),
the boat captain that was previously mentioned, Zhang guang an (張光安),
was killed by a high official (=留守) of Hakozaki-gu.
The power elite families (= Kenmon権門) attempted to put the powerful
Chinese merchants under their control. If they refused, they were often
killed.
In Ima-tsu, in the 1st year of the Kenchou Era, (1249), the regent (=執権) of
the Kamakura Bakufu, with Hojo Tokiyori as patron and benefactor (=
Dan'otsu檀越), established the temple, Syoufuku-ji (=勝福寺) (Rinzai sect)
under the guidance of the Sung Chinese, Rankei Doryu (蘭渓道隆). In later
years, he was also responsible for establishing the great Zen temple,
Kencho-ji, in Kamakura. Nearby Syoufuku-ji, there is place that bears the
name of "旦過" from which many pieces of Chinese porcelain have been
unearthed (The 旦過 ruins). No Toubou-related name has been verified to
have existed in this area, but this area was a base of operations for activities
related to Chinese culture. Of course, the personages that are related to this
temple were fluent speakers of Chinese and were involved in carrying out
interpreting for the trading harbor of Ima-tsu.
In the case of Hakata-tsu, there were many Zen temples built, including
Jyouten-ji (=承天寺), established by 謝国明= Sya Kokumei and Xie
Kuomin and Syouhuku-ji established by Yousai (=栄西). According to
Yasutoki Oba who investigated the ratios of the different types compared to
total earthenware utensils unearthed at Kushida Jinja, Jyouten-ji and
Syoufuku-ji. He concluded that there was a Toubou located close by to the
west.
In the case of Mei-no-hama, in the 1st tear of the Bunou Era (1260), the
commanding officer of Dazaifu (=Chinzei Tandai 鎮西探題), Hojo
Tokisada established Koutoku-ji (Rinzai sect) and Nanpo Jyoumin who was a
Chinese Zen priest and spend long years living in Japan became the head of
this temple. It is surmised that the location of the Toubou was next to the old
grounds of Koutoku-ji. In the case of Hakata, there was a Toubou near
Jyouten-ji and Syoufuku-ji. The Mei-no-hama Toubou was connected with
Koutoku-ji and it appears to be the same settlement. In the case of Zen
temples, there were many Sung Chinese and also many Japanese that had
gone to Sung Era China so that the language used in these temples tended to
be Chinese. The Toubou were not actually a part of these Zen temples, but
were often located adjacent to them.
In the case of Mei-no-hama and Shimo-Yamato, multiple Toubou names
have been verified as being used in these areas and this is a significant
discovery. One was Imatoubou. As was the case with Imatsu, the "今" (=
new) indicated that it was a "new" harbor and previously existing name of
Hakata-tsu as continued to be used. for the older part of the bay. In this case
as well, the previously existing Toubou was probably not moved and a new,
additional Toubou was probably established nearby. It is also likely that there
were multiple groups of Sung Chinese living in the Mei-no-hama area that
had various different business interests and relationships. The newly
established Chinese settlements were probably established by groups with
different interests that broke away from their original groups and established
new "China Towns."
The Inoshu family was listed as the owner of Ninna-ji land but the de facto
landlord was the Hojo family (that controlled the Kamakura Bakufu at this
period). In the case of Imatsu, Syoufuku-ji, established by the Hojo family,
was the base of operations for this newly arrived power elite force in the area.
The original power group was centered around Seigan-ji where Jugen (=重
源) and Yousai had been active. It can be assumed that there were clashes
between these two power bases. Ninna-ji used Seigan-ji as a base and the
Bakufu used Syoufuku-ji. Both Ninna-ji and the Bakufu established
profitable operations in this area and together probably controlled the trading
companies and the kohshu. The Zen temples arrived on the scene with the
coming of the Kamakura Period and new bases of power in the area, the
means by which the profits to be made in this area were taken away from the
previously existing power groups.
These forms of competition and cooperation between the Toubou groups in
northern Kyushu in the Hakata Bay area can be assumed to have existed in
the more southern parts of Kyushu as well. In the case of Hizen, there were
only four names of Toubou that could be located in this area, but it is safe to
assume that there were in fact many Chinese settlements in this area. In the
case of location names, it is very difficult to establish firm dates from which
they are used. They come into existence at different times and go out of use
from time to time. They do not exist in parallel consistently. At the end of the
Kamakura Period, the term "kohshu" disappears from the historical records
and it is necessary to keep this factor in mind. It is also necessary to keep
Korai/Korea in mind. However, the fact the Toubou names became location
names and this phenomena continued to exist for a certain period of time as
can be seen from the above. That Toubou existed in many different areas is a
fact that cannot be refuted. They were necessary to provide a form of
communication with the Sung boats that arrived continuously in that period.
The Toubou that existed in the various different areas competed with each
other, but in many cases, Toubou in local areas were branch operations for
the larger Toubou in the main areas such as Hakata. The various elite power
groups attempted to control the various Toubou. As the historical records
show, cases where Sung boats drifted into harbors in Hizen Kanzaki-sho
(Controlled by a retired Emperor) and Kishima-sho (An estate belonging to
Ninna-ji). This is not Hakata Bay and neither is it the Genkai-nada area. Both
of these harbors are in the Ariake Sea area. As is implied from this, aside
from Hakata, there were many were other estates (and members of the
Imperial family) in the Middle Ages that were connected with Sung trade.
(Hattori: "The Peacocks That Came to Kinejima Estate in the Kyuan Era",
Reading History, 2003 (First edition: 1996). In addition, at the same time,
these incidents also point to the importance of Sung/Japan trade in the Ariake
area in this period. There are Kushida Shrines in both Kouzaki-sho (sho =
estate) and Hakata. There is also a good possibility that the parties
responsible for raising the funds for these shrines had connections with both
of these areas. If Hakata can be called the front entrance to this activity, than
Kouzaki-sho can be seen as the relationship of a rear entrance to trade.
The Toubou names, as an historical source, help to broaden one's vision
when one is involved in examining the history of relationships with other
countries. When looked at from the point of view of historical research, The
mainstream of this activity is centered on the Hakata area. Virtually all the
important activities took place in the Hakata area. The role of harbors other
than those in the Hakata Bay area was relatively small and has not been
evaluated as having much importance. This is a reflection of the fact that
Dazaifu, an arm central government, attempted to follow a policy of keeping
all such trading activities limited to the Hakata area only. However, the actual
situation differed was far-removed from this policy. If the most strongly
controlled areas are compared to the other areas, it can be seen that there is
ample possibilities that there were many other harbors where the taxes were
lower and selling prices were higher. This consideration leads to new possible
historical significance of the various locations the names of which are related
to Sung Toubou settlements of this period.
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