はっとりひでおが書いたもの 2003 "Interaction and Transformations"1-Kyushu Univarsity,p199-210Rice cultivation in Japanese agriculture in ancient times and the
Middle Ages differed from other parts of Asia
-Reexamining the meaning of kata-arashi and the origins of the two-crop
system-
Hideo Hattori Introduction The mechanization of Japanese rice cultivation has advanced over the past 30-40 years, but before that was generally intensive agriculture that was implemented by concentrating labor and fertilizer. In what era did this intensive agriculture become prevalent? According to Koji Tanaka in Types and Distribution of Rice Cultivation Technology in Asian History of Rice 1 (1987), Japanese rice cultivation is unique among rice cultivation in Asia. Most of the rice paddies in Asia are natural rice paddies, but in Japan irrigated rice paddies are the mainstream as the monsoons (tsuyu 梅雨) were short. The mainstream rice-planting by transplantation (taue 田植) in Japan is not universal throughout Asia. In South Asia and the area in and around India directly planting the seeds is the mainstream. Taue is the mainstream from China to Vietnam and in half of Thailand, while directly planting the seeds used to be the mainstream in the Philippines. Japanese agriculture cultivates rice and wheat（barley）, the two major grains, in the same field over the period of one year. Rice that likes damp ground and wheat（barley） that likes dry ground are alternated over this period of one year. As the agricultural techniques enables easily alternating irrigation and drainage, this is seen as having been unique in the world. (Tetsuo Shiotani, Heibonsha Encyclopedia.) One says that no other country in the world has tried raising two crops a year of rice and wheat（barley） on the same cultivated land. Japan has one thousand years of history in raising two crops a year. Thus this long history of stably raising two crops a year of rice and wheat（barley） in the same rice paddies deserves special mention. What was the sequence of historical events that produced this unique Japanese agriculture? Looking at the research annals of Japanese agriculture related to this up until now, intensive agriculture such as raising two crops a year was not a product of ancient times. It has been considered that extensive agriculture was conducted until the Heian and Kamakura eras. It was not until the latter part of Kamakura era that intensive agriculture spread. It is primarily understood that the form of extensive Japanese agriculture changed after the Middle Ages, but is this really true? The keyword in research annals displaying extensive agriculture was kata-arashi. This article starts by reexamining the meaning of kata-arashi in ancient times and the middle ages. 1. Reexamining the meaning of kata-arashi The Nihon Kokugo Daijiten (Encyclopedia of Japanese Language) states on kata-arashi that, during the Heian era, fields were cultivated for one year and then rested the following year due to the poor soil. It is explained as ekiden (易田). The explanation is to deliberately leave the fields alone on alternate years. The Iwanami Nihonshijiten (Iwanami Japanese History Dictionary), Kokushi Daijiten (History of Japan Dictionary), and Jidaibetsu Kokugo Daijiten (Japanese Era Dictionary) all explain this without any great discrepancies. Many other dictionaries also give the same established opinion. This opinion is widely known by scholars on Japanese medieval history as that of Yoshimi Toda in One Characteristic in Early Medieval Agriculture which was first published in 1959, and then reprinted in 1967 in Research on the Formation of the Japanese Feudal System. Since Toda's article was published, kata-arashi has displayed the lowest productivity in medieval agriculture. Research papers in this field always include the context of widespread poor quality rice paddies as in kata-arashi, and of the problem of overcoming kata-arashi. Kata-arashi became the image that symbolized the basis for the low production of this period. However, there actually are not any obstacles to carrying out repeated rice cultivation in the same fields every year. Nor do we hear of plants lying dormant every other year in the natural world. There is an example of a dry rice field that if it is left fallow for one year, it requires three years to be restored to its normal condition. (Tanada Society Report, No. 7, 2002) The weeds grew thick, and labor is required to cut the roots to fix the field. Is it really true that a cultivated rice field would be deliberately wasted? There actually are regions where the term kata-arashi is still used today. Takashi Saito (The Oral Tradition of Rice Cultivation, published by Sakaiya Tosho, 1987) presented Kouzaka, Taki-cho, Taki-gun in Mie Prefecture as well as Maemura where dry rice-fields are called katada (solid fields) or mugita (wheat（barley） fields), damp paddy fields called kata-arashi, and very damp paddy fields called numada or numata, nomata which means marshy rice fields. The rice fields that are not cultivated in winter are kata-arashi. This is not abandoning the fields alternatively every other year, but is letting them lay fallow only in the winter season. In November, 2002, the author visited this area of Kouzaka, Maemura, and Hiradani to verify how the term kata-arashi was used. Kozaka consisted of rain-fed paddy fields, and there were not any cisterns pond. The upper part of the valley was called numada or nomada (marshy rice fields), that below it kata-arashi, and katada (solid fields) where the fields enter the level grounds. Kata-arashi in the broad sense is part of the marshy rice fields and refers to not growing two crops a year, and not growing wheat（barley） in the rice fields. They are the relatively dry fields around the periphery of the marshy rice fields. This is because wheat（barley） fields require tremendous quantities of water and water may be stored in the marshy rice fields. The quality of harvest in tan (approximately 1,000 m2 of land) and total ratio accounted of Kouzaka rice paddies before World War II is as follows: ( 1 bag ( 4 toh (斗), 72P,60kg Marshy rice fields: 5-6 bags of rice in tan, about 10 cho from a total of 30 cho (1 cho = 10 tan) Kata-arashi: 6-7 bags of rice, about 3 cho from a total of Marshy fields 10 cho Solid fields: 7-8 bags of rice and 3-4 bags of wheat（barley）, a little less than 20 cho from a total of 30 cho The marshy rice fields are now all mountains and forests turning result for cultivated land that is lying fallow. There were some people who said that they could grow wheat （barley） using kata-arashi if they worked more than was reasonable. The same examples were even verified in Maemura and Hiradani, but they are not used much in recent years. The meanings of words have changed. Some people say that the dried fields under-drainage has been used with swampy rice fields, are kata-arashi. Some people even refer to fields that lay fallow due to reduced rice acreage as kata-arashi. There is an impression in the latter that there is a strong nuance of arashi (waste), which may be because kata-arashi of very poor quality was subject to reduction in acreage. It is widely known, however, that kata-arashi fundamentally means rice fields where two crops a year cannot be grown. In Ise and the Taki area, kata-arashi means rice fields that lay fallow without a secondary crop in the winter, damaged rice fields, and damp paddy fields. Ordinarily, it means rice fields that, containing water, are soft and not suitable for growing wheat（barley）. Toda provides the two uses below of kata-arashi in the Middle Ages: 1. 早苗とるやすのわたりのかたあらし、こぞのかり田はさびしかりけり Kata-arashi where rice sprouts is to be taken out and neighborhood of place yasu-no- watari, making the cut fields of last year look more and more cheerless. (Shugyokushu, 拾玉 集; Jien, 慈円, 1155 - 1225) 2. 山かつのそともの小田のかたあらし 古年 (去年) のつくりはしめもおろさず The small rice-field of kata-arashi behind the home of a humble mountain dweller was left without a sacred Shinto straw festoon last year. (Shinsen 6 Jyou, the beginning of Kangen to the second year, which was 1243-1244) The kata-arashi in (1) above is used for rice seedlings nurseries新選六帖 where rice sprouts are taken from. The rice fields in the surrounding areas are the same as they were last year after harvesting. The bright green of the bed for rice seedlings contrasts the cheerless dark brown background of winter decay. While the contrast of color and time is the material for a tanka, which is a Japanese poem of thirty-one syllables, even if "The cut fields of last year かり田 (苅田)" are the fields let alone for a short time after the harvest, these fields were not left to lie fallow for one or two years. Even if the fields were not cultivated in May (Japones and Chinese Calendar), they were plowed up just before rice planting. There are many examples of planting immediately after plowing and irrigating the fields. (Toshio Hurushima. Japanese Agricultural Technological History. Collection by same author. Volumn 6. P. 162.) The kata-arashi in (2) above is kata-arashi in the rice fields behind the home of a humble mountain dweller without refinement or common sense who left the rice fields alone from last year without a sacred Shinto straw festoon being put down. Townspeople (Tomoie Fujiwara) saw this unexpected scenery and it became the material for a tanka. Koji-ruien is a history encyclopedia written in the Meiji Era. This poem, using 古年 (hurutoshi) "Old Year", is only quoted in the Koji-ruien, but Zokuzoku-Gunsho-ruiju (classics reissued in the Meiji era), Shinhenkokkataikan (text of Shoren-inbon青蓮院本), Nihonkokugo Daijiten (text of Kohon広本), and many other edited materials mention this part of the poem as 去年(kozo) ,which means last year. An early quote from this poem is in Huboku-wakashou in 1310, where it is referred to as kozo (こぞ). The editor of Koji- ruien used the characters 古年 for kozo (こぞ) instead of kyonen (去年). Furutoshi (古 年) has the same meaning as last year, but it must be read as kozo in the poem or it will break the meter of the poem. The form of the characters 古 and 去 also resemble each other. Miscopies or misprints must have taken place during the process of compiling. Toda did not read 古年 as kozo. One passage in Toda's article, "made old year", even when it becomes the time to take the rice sprouts, leaves the cut fields of last year as they are as the place to explain leaving the fields fallow every other year (op. cit. p. 178.). Revise furutoshi (古年 old year) to kozo (去年 last year) and the argument cannot be made. There were not any sacred Shinto straw festoons, but as it was obvious that kata- arashi was cultivated last fall, it was able to be confirmed that cultivation takes place every year. Even though it is left as long as half a year until rice planting starts, it is not possible to read that the field is left wasted for a longer period. 水こえし川ぞひ小田のかたあらし おこせやさらばすゑをたのみに Kata-arashi of Oda (small rice field) along water-passing river, cultivate it for future use. (Nobutada Senshu, thousand poems信尹千首) This poem tells of kata-arashi in a small rice field that is inundated by nearby rivers. While the conditions are bad, it is made ready to be used for the next period or in the future (waking the fields for cultivation). This kata-arashi was in low marshy ground. For this field, the period that it lay wasted is not known, but there is a tanka with the following scene: 五月雨の河ぞひ柳水こへて うちもそよがずむぎの秋風 (「御室五十首」) May rains making water overflow passing through willows along river, why did not wheat（barley） field sway at all in a spring (wheat（barley） tall) wind? (Omuro Gojussh, 50 poems) The water overflowing the width of the river during the rainy season was the subject matter in the tanka for poetic descriptions of May. While the fruitage of the wheat （wheat（barley）） harvest is in April, it is also the time of kata-arashi when nothing is done, which is probably for single-crop fields. Tanka like this does not guide the character to kata-arashi leaving the fields fallow. There are only examples against this. Examining more closely, however, shows that fields which lie fallow for one year are defined in annotated additions of linked poems (renga). かたあらし 田畠年まぜに荒るヽを云 片荒と書(『匠材集』一) "Kata-arashi: of rice fields and term" is written asChinese character 片荒 (Shozaishu, 1). Shozaishu, in Nihon Koten Zenshuu (Complete Japanese Classics), contains a postscript written in Keichou 2 (1597) by Satomura Jouha, the renga master. It says, "Rice fields and farms are wasted every other year (toshi-maze). Maze has the same use as "hi-maze" (every other day) and therefore the rice fields and farms lay fallow in alternate years. This is not the kata-arashi with raising a single crop a year that we have seen until now. This is almost nenko年荒, which is letting them lay fallow for a year and nenpu年不, which is not growing anything for a year. In Wakun-no-Shiori by Kotosuga Tanigawa (1777-1862) it reads: かたあらし、田畠の年交にあるヽをいふといへり、新六帖にみへたり Kata-arashi It can be said that rice fields and farms are laid fallow every other year. It is seen in Shin Roku Jou新六帖. As written "It can be said", it is quoted and has the same meaning as in Shozaishu. Mase (mix) is printed in kana next to "交", and it means every other year. Following is the explanation in Syunmuso. あらぬかたにも結ぶかりいほ うち捨ていかに田づらのかたあらし Hermitage temporarily built in an unintended direction Standing on rice field, kata-arashi, how can he discard it and go away The kata-arashi stands for the rice fields of one year of cultivation, followed by one year of letting them lay fallow, and does it stand for growing wild in mind? What kind of person is he who discarded the rice field and built the temporary hermitage in the unintended direction? (Shunmuso, which is also read as Haruyumegusa, spring dreaming. in Katsuranomiya-bon-sosho Volume 19, p. 157, collection of Zushoryo.) Shunmuso is in the Eisoushu collection of the renga master Shouhaku and was written in around Eishou 13 (1516). This annotation seems to be the starting point for the understanding of kata-arashi that has continued since Jouha. It is hard, however, in definition of the versions of Shouhaku and Jouha, to interpret "Made last year" and "Harvested last year". In the Kamakura era, kata-arashi would not have been the field laying fallow the year before. Kata-arashi is understood in the world of renga as expressing wild agricultural scenery. While the poem's connotation of kata-arashi is good for tanka, but only a mere three poems are composed with kata-arashi in the enormous New Edition of Kokka Taikan, a compilation of hundreds of thousands of Japanese tanka. There were truly few people who understood the meaning of this unique usage. There was space for a unique interpretation to be created by linked-verse poets. Toshio Hurushima provides detailed information on Kariiho in the nature of tanka in his above mentioned book (op. cit. p. 96). "Kariiho around which fall rice is harvested秋田 刈る仮蘆", which means a temporary hermitage for cutting and harvesting the rice in the fall, has been used frequently since Manyoshu (〜759) was written. The hermitage was a temporary shelter that was build away from the usual house for the rice fields in the mountains. The renga, however, emphasized the unintended direction and symbolized the life of the people growing wild. It was greatly different from the actual scenery of the agriculture and mountain villages. If there was moto-uta, an original poem that the scene and words and phrases were followed when composing the tanka, then it is thought that there would be the poetic sentiment in kata-arashi where no wheat(barley) was cultivated and from which the farmer goes away and in the state of mind of farmer who discarded the temporary hermitage until spring. Thus, it seems that there were two different worlds of kata-arashi in the rice fields of the Middle Ages. The example in the Kamakura era shows the actual fall harvesting and the fields were not seen to be rested for one year. The rice fields were not left alone for a long time. This is connected to the kata-arashi of the rice fields of today where there is single- cropping of rice. On the other hand, while annotated editions of renga use expressions of "one year is harvest, one year is fallow" and "wasted every other year", this can easily yield the idea of intentional and planned abandonment of cultivation. Actually, this indicates nenpu, which means that the field was let lay fallow for one year. As in the Taki area today, the connotation of arashi is strong. In the unnoticed world of tanka and renga, kata-arashi is widely interpreted and generally understood as areta, which means some distance is achieved between it and the meaning of kata-arashi for single-cropping rice fields. Not only is kata-arashi in rice fields, but it also exists in farms. In "Masuda-Monjo (Masuda document, written in May 5, Keichou 4 (1599)", referred to by "Research of Development History of Middle Ages in Japan (Hideo Kuroda, 1984, p. 121)", the document indicated a) About farms in a mountain cultivated every year, and b) About farms in a mountain cultivated every other year (kata-arashi). Compared to farms cultivated every year, the kata-arashi is the field where it is impossible to repeat cultivation, that is, cultivation cannot continue every year. It is the example closest to Toda's opinion. The farm in a mountain should stand for the land made arable by the slash-and-burn method. In this case, as cultivation and fallow periods are repeated in a cycle of approximately 10 years, the farm can be wasted for several years. The kata-arashi was considered to be wasted in a part of this one cycle. "Jikata-Hanreiroku (1794)" mentions Katagesaku片毛作 (cultivation in a half period) in contrast with Ryougesaku両毛作 (cultivation in a full period). In the example of Ise and Taki area, the kata-arashi indicates the farm wasted in a winter of a half year, and consequently is called so. Therefore, "kata" means the half of a year. If "kata" is considered to be a part of a pair or a series, a series for a paddy field was one year and one cycle for a farm in a mountain was 9-10 years. The consideration above shows the diversity of examples for kata-arashi and, for paddy fields there have been kata-arashi which is cultivated from previous year to this year without any interruption since Kamakura era. Meanwhile, as emphasized by Toda, there were nenkou年荒, nenpu年不, and touhu当 不 as well as jyoukou常荒 for paddy field in Middle Ages. In Toda's logic regarding kata-arashi in the same light as ekiden mentioned below, he impressed on readers that the nenkou and touhu were the rice field which was not intentionally cultivated. Isn't that true? The nenkou and touhu could not result in harvest because of insufficient irrigation water even if cultivated. Since a period at an early stage of development of construction technologies has a lot of rice fields almost close to tensui-den, a little bit of low rainfall directly caused drought disasters. Archives in Middle Ages have many expressions of "enkan炎旱 extending over 10 days" and "enkan already extending over 10 days". "Research of Famine and Warfare (2000)". Namely, people had to be worried about drought disaster because of only 10 days of fine weather. In addition, if heavy rain destroyed irrigation facilities, it had to be repaired within a period maintaining water in paddy field; otherwise, causing poor harvests. They had storm damages, crop damages due to disease, damages from insects (locust or leafhopper) and we can safely say that there were an extremely large percentage of unstable paddy fields. Was ekiden易田 in ancient times close to nenkou or nenpu? "Ryou-no-gige (833)" described "The ekiden is cultivated every other year because of poor soil." and "Ryou-no- syuuge (〜876)" described "The ekiden described in Koki is the field with cultivation of one year followed by one year not being seeded. Accordingly, twice as much as area of land should be given and harvest of one year may be cultivated for a period of two years." The ekiden was a very poor-quality paddy field and both the cultivation and seeding were made every other year. The ekiden seems to be the paddy field where cultivation and seeding were made every other year. However, "Ta田" in Chinese character or "Ta" in China and Korea means "farms." (Dai-kanwa-jiten) If so, it is natural that crop rotation or a fallow period should be required to avoid damages due to repeated cultivation. "Ichi-eki 一易", "Sai-eki再易", and "San-eki三易" described in Dai-shito of "Syurai" or Syokkasi of "Kanjo" may show examples of farms. How far was Ritsu-ryou唐令, which imitated Touryou, revised depending on actual conditions in Japan? More consideration is required. Ryou-no-gige said "In case of ekiden, twice as much as area of land should be given for kubun-den." and "the word twice means, for example, 4 tan should be provided instead of 2 tan." The ekiden was poor soil land and therefore twice as much as area of land had to be distributed. However, it did not say that tribute might be reduced by half. Since the ekiden was a poor soil land naturally, about only half of the normal was expected for each tan. If the half given was left fallow for full one year, the remaining half had to product the normal harvest. However, such harvest could not be achieved. Accordingly, it is hard to consider the ekiden as a paddy field intentionally left fallow. Dajoukanpu on June 4 of Kounin 12 (821) (Ruijyuu-Sandai-kyaku) said "If the paddy field cultivated in a previous year has a poor harvest this year, cultivate the ekiden (i.e., change the paddy field) each year to secure a harvest." and the kubun-den was doubled because of a poor soil. In this case, the word "poor harvest" means that the field produced nothing even if being planted and has the same meaning as that in Middle Ages and modern periods. I think that "Ekiden every year" means another paddy field which can make a harvest in a next year even if the original paddy field made a bad harvest in this year. In Heian era, the ekiden changed meaning of very poor quality, from which no tribute might be obtained. ("Engi-siki" Shuzei) The ekiden, which was approved at Kawachi and Harima countries in Kounin 12 and approved at Izumi country in Tenchou 3, meant such very poor quality paddy field or paddy field from which no tribute might be obtained. (same as above) As described above, it is not until Heian era that the ekiden became established in the law society in Japan. In the examination of kata-arashi and ekiden as mentioned above, the kata-arashi was not the paddy field intentionally left fallow and, in the original meaning of the word, it meant the single-crop paddy field, which normally produced rice every year. In addition, a literary world had the opinion that it was the paddy field cultivated every other year. Although the ekiden was confused around the establishment of Ritsuryou under a strong influence of Chinese laws against farms, it is made clear that it had been established as meanings of very poor quality paddy field and paddy field from which no tribute might be obtained in Heian era. For intellectuals in Middle Ages, the regulations in Ritsuryou was more great existence than we consider. We can know that the interpretation, which regarded the ekiden in Ritsuryou and kata-arashi as having the same meaning, had been traditional, and followed by Shouhaku, Jouha, and Kotosuga. "Koji-ruien" shows the kata-arashi in the paragraph of the ekiden. The kata-arashi, which has been handed down partially, was the single-crop paddy field and has been used since the Middle Ages for a long time. The word of kata-arashi had to be named so because the paddy field not to be wasted for full one year (two-crop paddy field, mugita) existed widely. The kata-arashi implies the two-crop system widely existing behind it. Now let's examine the two-crop in ancient times and the Middle Ages. 2. The origins of the two-crop system Up to now, according to "About the Origins of Two-crop System" ("Formation History of Feudal System in the Middle Ages" collected in 1971, by Yoshiyasu Kawane first edited in 1965), it is considered that the two-crop system appeared first in the historical document of "Ise Koumyouji document (Uruu September 13 of Gen-ei 1(1118))" ("Heian-ibun" vol. 5, No 1892). However, there are the other older historical documents for consideration of the two-crop system. "Kanke-bunsou" (Shoutai 3 (900)) shows one poem below: "賦得麦秋至一首" that includes the paragraph below: 乗時夏令安 麦田千畝遠 秋色両岐寛 欲攀先登穀 A summer has come and wheat(barley) field continues on into the far distance. In such fall-like scenery, a lot of wheat (barley) heads divide into right and left and grow abundantly. First of all, let's offer the grain for God. Ta in Chinese character normally means farms and there is no character indicating paddy field by one. Since Ta in Chinese character generally indicates a cultivated field, the scene represented in "麦田千畝遠" can be regarded as the representation of the paddy field changed into a dry field. Sugawara Michizane had not gone to Tou (old China) and the person in Japanese government service (Bishuu-Jishiba) appeared a little ahead of the poem. The poem includes the detailed observation such as "両岐寛" Before Shoutai 3, April in Japanese summer had such scenery as wheat (barley) field as far as 1000 ridges. It goes back from Gen-ei more than 200 years. In Heisei 12 (2000), mokkan dated February 12 of Kashou 2 (849) (Kaga-gunpu, narrow strip of wood on which an official message is written) was excavated at Kamo ruin on Tsubata-chou in Ishikawa prefecture. ("Kaga-gunpu and its meanings of the artifact at Kamo ruin on Tsubata-chou in Ishikawa prefecture" in "Japanese History, No.645", 2002, p.11, "Discovery of an Official Notice in Ancient Times", 2001) It includes one item of: 一、以五月三十日前可中田植竟状 It means that rice planting should be completed until the end of May in that year and report be made. Since a rainy season is nearly over at the end of May, rice planting should be completed until then. It is certain that such an instruction as above was made because wheat (barley) was planted in paddy field. Wheat (Barley) was reaped after April (Japanese calendar or Chinese calendar) in barley's fall (spring) and rice was planted in a rainy season (tsuyu). It would take half month or more until the completion of rice planting. If rice planting was made after the rainy season was over, it would cause drought damages. Not only peasantry but also statesmen were afraid of such situations. In a single-crop system, it was possible to plant rice immediately after the beginning of rainy season and to seed directly rice in March or after and therefore such situations was not expected to occur. Although the document does not include the word of wheat（barley）, it should be the document where a secondary crop in paddy field and two-crop system appeared for the first time. When was rice planted in those days? According to the paragraph on April 14 of Tenchou 9 (832) in "Nihon-isshi", Junwa Emperor of Japan and his Empress Masako, who were on a visit to Urintei, a cottage on suburb, viewed the scenery of agriculture and gave rewards to men and women planting rice. The day corresponded to May 21 in the Gregorian calendar. In suburbs of Kyouto, rice was planted in early rainy season. Mokkan dated third of this month, which was excavated at Attame-Jouri荒田目条里 ruin in Iwaki-city of Fukushima prefecture, was used to call 36 peasants into rice planting at (Gunji) Shikiden. Its back shows "dated May 3" and consequently it is possible to confirm that the rice planting started at May 3. Unfortunately, however, the year cannot be understood. The ruin yielded the mokkan dated October in Ninju 3 (853) and if the year above is identical with it, the date should be June 16 in Gregorian calendar. There were other mokkans, whose year was not be understood, dated May 17, May 23, and May 1? Since their backs show names of a variety of rice such as "地蔵子 child of Jizo; 1 koku一石", the dates may indicate the days when rice planting should be recommended. In Iwaki, rice was planted in a period from May 3 by not later than May 23. In ninth century, rice was planted in a period from the middle of April to the last ten days of May. Today, rice must not be planted in July (in the Christian Era) even in the case of severe drought. If so, the harvest is said to fall considerably. In ancient times or the Middle Ages, rice had to be planted during a rainy season or May (in Japanese calendar). Kashou mokkan was put up at roadsides (at boundaries of roadsides). No Chinese ink remained on the characters because of weathering away. The character parts have remained as convex surfaces because the physical and chemical effects of the ink restrained them from corroding. The characters are clear but unfortunately some parts of dates, especially numerals cannot be read. "2 (二)" of Kashou 2 has been considered as so because there is a small space between characters above and under it and it does not include a vertical line. According to the contents of the mokkan, the suggestion of Agricultural Labor, it was put up at the beginning of a year. Since the name of the era had been changed from Jyouwa to Kashou on June 13 in Jyouwa 15 (848), Among 4 years in Kashou era only first year of the era did not have the month before May. May 30 (it was actually May 29; the month was actually an intercalary month and did not have the 30th day. It represented the end of the month.) should correspond to June 27 in Gregorian calendar for Kashou 2, July 16 for Kashou 3, and July 6 for Kashou 4 or Jinju 1 (851). Dates in July were too late to demand or recommend rice planting. Because Tsuyu monsson had already ended. The logic also supports the opinion that the date was considered as Kashou 2. The coexistence of wheat（barley） and rice in the same paddy field was materialized on the delicate balance. If the time elapsed until full maturity of wheat（barley）, it might interfere with rice planting in many cases. Statesmen instructed again and again that rice always took priority over wheat（barley）. "Daijyouin-Jisha-zoujiki" (Bunmei 7 (1475)), which is a historical material a little closer to today, says "As wheat（barley） cultivation spreads excessively, water becomes insufficient and important rice may be affected. Peasants complained about damages of drought. However, wheat（barley） cultivation should be inhibited." The modern period succeeded to such a logic and the historical document collected in "Soukokushi" in Keian 2 (1649) of modern periods said "Recent water shortage for rice planting had been caused by overproduction of wheat（barley）. Wheat（barley） field should be reduced." Lords of manors were interested in only tribute of rice for each year. In some case, the lords regarded Wheat（barley）, principal food for peasants as obstructions to collect tributes. "Kamakura-Ibun (vol 12, N9080)", which was laws of Kamakura regime in Bun- ei 1 (1264), inhibited lords from collecting each-year tribute from wheat（barley） planted in paddy field harvested and gave all of it to peasants. It was the policy to cheer peasants and there basically were the same way of thinking for wheat（barley） as the lords had. If wheat（barley） was produced, "耕作遅遅", that is, rice planting had not to be postponed. Now, why is the rice planting carried out which requires enormous labor? As one of reasons that the rice planting occurred, it is considered that there was the intention to cope with both of wheat（barley） cultivation and rice cultivation. To cope with the occupation of paddy field with wheat（barley） until April (wheat（barley） fall) and the occupation with rice after rice planting in May, it was absolutely required to use "nawashiro"; seed to be transplanted which is brought up without use of paddy field during a period from sowing of seeds in March until rice planting. The word of "nawashiro" already appeared in "Harima-Hudoki" in Reiki 1 (715) and was found here and there in Manyousyuu. The scenery of lively and large-scale rice planting was described in "Makura-no-soushi" (beginning of 11 Century, kamo-mairi in 226 paragraph), "Eiga- monogatari (11 Century)", "Shin-Sarugouki (beginning of 11 Century)", and others. Direct planting of seeds were widely carried out. The above mentioned book by Harushima presents the words of "rice which was sowed" and "paddy field for sowing" provided in "Manyousyu" and reconstructs a series of Shintou rituals, regarding it as the evolution of rice cultivation by direct planting, described in "Koutai-jinguu-gishiki-chou" (Enryaku 23 (804)) which made no mention of rice planting events. The documents in the Middle Ages provided the expressions of "何升蒔" and "何斗蒔" here and there and they remained in names of places. Particularly in damp paddy field where two crop has not been carried out (single crop paddy field), direct planting without rice planting has been carried out until recently. ("Folkloric Research of Rice Cultivation with Picking Manner" (Naoyuki Ogawa, 1995) At countries in South Asia and around India directly planting seeds is the mainstream at present and the south of Thailand mostly carries out it. In China, direct planting of seeds had been carried out until introduction of rice planting in Sou era for multiple cropping. ("Types and Distribution of Rice Cultivation Technology in Asian History of Rice 1 (1987)" by Koji Tanaka, "Ancient Rice Cultivation History in China in Asian History of Rice 2" by Yuu Shuurei, You Xiu Ring) The south of Luzon island in Philippine generally carries out direct planting of seeds during World War . Some areas once changed to rice planting as a result of agricultural instructions but they returns to direct planting of seeds at present due to power saving. It is widely known that Hokkaidou, the northern limit of the range of rice in Japan, carried out direct planting of seeds. Was direct planting of seeds the mainstream historically throughout the Asia? The direct planting of seeds remained until modern times in Japan because of advanced cultivation method in paddy field under wrong condition and emergency evacuation from rice planting method. However, the names of places including the meaning of sowing and the rice field where seeds actually are sowed are not always the poorest soil lands. The direct planting of seeds requires such works as thinning out and weeding of several times not required in rice planting. However, compared with rice planting making villagers and employees busily devote to it for half month or more, it was apparent that the direct planting of seeds was more power-saving. The advantages of rice planting are improvement of work efficiency for weeding and protection of young plants after germination (protecting frost damage by soaking them in water only in night). Many historical documents say that paddy field with rice planting produces more harvest. The rice planting started with thinning out of overcrowding young plants in direct planting of seeds, transplantation, and discovery of advantages of transplantation. There were simultaneously two methods at the start of rice cultivation and one of them, rice planting took longer time to spread because of excess labor required. Since there were rice nurseries to bring up young plants in case of kata-arashi, rice planting is not always carried out in two-crop system. The rice planting in Urintei at early time, April might be carried out in single-crop system. However, two-crop system always requires rice planting and uses rice-planting agricultural technology. On the other hand, single-crop rice field did not always require rice planting. According to the historical document of a southern Kyuushuu in the last days of the Tokugawa regime, rice planting was carried out only in two-crop rice field and single-crop rice field used direct planting of seeds and had larger areas. The difference of cultivation methods; rice planting in two- crop system and direct planting of seeds in single-crop system, remained as a general tendency until later times. Wheat（barley） was excavated at the ruins of Yayoi era (Joumon in some opinions). It was regarded as important for ingredients of soybean paste or hisio (soy sauce in ancient times) and its biennial nature was widely known. There was not damage of repeated cultivation with rice. Rice field, if it was dry field, could be changed to farm (rikuden) only by discharging water. Most of the cultivation period of rice did not coincide with that of wheat（barley）. However, there was always overlapping period of one or two months. The problem of overlapping period could be solved by using rice nurseries. The spread of rice nurseries made people foresee the possibility of two-crop system or it can be said that progress of two-crop system caused rice nurseries to spread. It is probable that two-crop system started at rice field managed by men of power or statesmen and had intentionally spread afterward. According to "Makura-no-soushi" and "Eiga-monogatari", large-scale rice planting was rare and was held as an exhibition. It may be said to be rare because of "large-scale." However, there was a possibility that rice planting itself was rare even in those days. As Fujiwara Michinaga carried out rice planting at rice field under direct management (Miumayada), Imperial Court and Sekkanke (high-rank noble families in Japan) carries out rice planting at rice field under direct management where was also model farms and pilot farms. It is thought that two-crop system was gradually promoted. In Nara and Heian eras, instructions were repeated to recommend wheat （barley） cultivation at dry paddy field ("Ruijyuu-Sandai-Kyaku" Nousou-no-koto). It is thought that the recommendation of wheat（barley） cultivation and promotion of two- crop system may be in the same flow. On the other hand, kashou mokkan mentioned above inhibited peasants from doing "任意喫魚酒" and warned "恣事逸遊不耕作喫魚". It meant that it inhibited peasants from drinking frequently and being idle. It is said that fish and liquor were treated peasants to when rich people set them to work in directly- managed rice field. All of ordinary peasants were not completely absorbed in playing and did not make an idle living. It seems that fear in the forefront of country officer's mind was gunji sikiden and rice field directly managed by stationmaster and village officer, where they were commonly treated to fish and liquor. Japan has a climate with short rainy season and with long dry season. In other words, the climate does not include only a dry season and has a moderate rainy season. Irrigated paddy fields were used more than rain-fed paddy field, it was easy to change from "damp" to "dry", and therefore the climate was suitable for rice cultivation fond of damp field and wheat（barley） cultivation fond of dry field. Accordingly, two-crop system of two major grains; rice and wheat（barley） started, which is unique in the world. Light of sun and water are necessary for growth of rice and wheat（barley）, light of sun pours each year enough for thick growth of plants, and water itself includes plenty of nutrition and manure. ("Ground and Rice Cultivation" in "Asian History of Rice 1" by Kazutake Kyuma). There was rice nurseries from long time ago. Until now, if two Chinese characters of Ta and Mugi did not appear in a historical document written in a certain period, it has been thought that the period did not have two- crop system. However, it has not been proved that two-crop system did not exist before Gen-ei era. If two-crop system was negative before Heian era and spread widely in latter part of Kamakura era, it seems that production had increased greatly during that period. However, a few evidences has not been found especially. Since "Man-youshuu", literature in ancient times had a wide range of words concerning seed transplantation such as rice nurseries, rice planting, rice-planting girl (May girl, Saotome), and picking up young plants, sanae. These were used to arrange the conditions of two-crop system and prepare for two-crop system. In those days, kashou mokkan, "Kanke-bunsou", and kata- arashi appeared. They are regarded as circumstantial evidences or direct evidences to indicate early existence of two-crop system. Iwaki-city in Fukushima prefecture, which sits on the coast of Pacific ocean and near which Kuro-sio (warm current) flows, is in two-crop system zone. If May 24 in Attame mokkan is the date for rice planting, it also can be included in the evidence. Until now, it has been thought that two-crop system started at advanced areas of Kinai and western countries. The description implying Two-crop system was found in Kaga's historical document but the northern limit of the range of two-crop system was at Etchuu (Toyama prefecture) before the World War . It vividly represents how progressive the peasants there were in ancient times. A peasant in Tara-no-sho, Manor of Wakasa country said "Agriculture will be accomplished with wheat（barley） cultivation. It is the same in every country." ("Statement by Peasants" in "Touji-Hyakugo-Monjo, a hundred boxes of document" April in Enbun 6 (1361)). The statement implied making his living with wheat （barley） cultivation instead of rice cultivation, and it means secondary crop. In Wakasa and other every country, living can be made with wheat（barley） cultivation in paddy field. Up to now, there have been opinions that denies the spread of two-crop system because of poor soil. According to the above-mentioned book (p.561) by Toshio Hurushima, however, the paddy field with wheat（barley） cultivation used primitive vegetation manure at Mikata village in Wakasa country even in the last days of the Tokugawa regime and Tenpo period (1830-44). Rice nurseries appeared almost spontaneously and its spread affected the occurrence and expansion of two-crop system, and in many cases rice planting was required for two-crop system. It was the background where two-crop system for two major grains; rice and wheat（barley）, which was unique in the world, was born. Traditional intensive agriculture in Japan, different from other parts of Asia, started at the time where the two- crop system was accepted; before the early days of Heian era for model and pilot farms owned by nobles, that is, in Nara era. 2003 "Interaction and Transformations"1-Kyushu Univarsity,p199-210 Hattori Hideo（服部英雄）